DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCE FROM  ANTIQUITY TO PRESENT

Science is a body of empirical and theoretical knowledge, produce by a global community of researchers, making use of specific techniques for the observation and explanation of real phenomenon, this technique summed up under banner of scientific method.  As such, the history of science draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history.

The scientific revolution of the sixteenth and early seventeenth century saw the inception of modern scientific methods to guide the evaluation of knowledge.  This change is considered to be so fundamental that source; especially philosophers of science practicing scientists consider earlier enquiries into nature to the pre-scientific.  Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those enquiries.

EARLY CUTURE.

In pre-historic times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition.  The development of writing enables knowledge to be stored and communicated across generation with much greater fidelity.  Combined with the development of agriculture, which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time could be devoted to tasks other than survival.

Many ancient civilizations, collected stars enological information in a systematic manner through simple observation.  Though they had no knowledge of the real physical structure of the planet and stars, many theoretical explanations were proposed.

Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and alchemy was practiced in several civilizations. Considerable observation of macrobiotic flora and fauna was also performed.

SCIENCE IN CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY

PLATO AND ARISTOTLE

In antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigating aimed at such practical goals as establishing in a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy.  The ancient peoples who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians) or as followers of a religions tradition.

The earlier Greek philosophers know as the pre-Socratic, provided competing answers to the question in the myths of their neighbors “How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?” subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produce in the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape letter investigations into nature.

The important legacy of this period include of substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology and astronomy, an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems especially those related to the problem of change and its causes and recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomenon and undertaking empirical research.

 THE MIDDLE AGES

With the division of empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contrast with much of its pest.  The library of Alexandria, which had suffered since it fell under Roman rule, had been destroyed by 642, shortly after the Arab conquest of Egypt while the Byzantine Empire still held leaving centers such as Constantinople, western Europe’s knowledge was concentrated in Monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12^th and 13^th centuries.  The curriculum of monastic schools included the studied of little available ancient text of the new works on practical subjects like medicine and time keeping.

HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD

Meanwhile, the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support by the newly created Arab caliphate.  With the spread of Islam in the 7^th and 8^th centuries, a period of Islamic Scholarship lasted until the 14^th century.  This scholarship was aided by several factors.  The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of translator.  Access to Greek and Roman texts from the B/Zantine Empire along the Indian source of learning provided Islamic scholars knowledge use to build upon.  In addition, there was this Hajj, which facilitated scholarly collaboration by bringing together people and new ideas from all over the Islamic world.

Islamic scientist place of far greater emphasis on experiment then had the Greek in mathematics the Persian scholar Muhammed ibn Musa al-khwarizini gave has name to the Indian concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. Sebian mathematical Al-Batani (950-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics and person scholarly Al- Razi to chemistry.  In astronomy, Al-Razi to chemistry.  In astronomy, Al Bateme improved the measurements of Heptarchs, preserve in the precession of earth’s axis. Arab alchemy, though flawed as a science, inspired Rojer Bacon (who introduced the empirical method of Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Arabic writers, and letter Isaac Newton. European science from the 12^th century Renaissance.

MAP OF MEDIEVAL

An intellectual revitalization of Europe Started with the birth of medieval Universities and during the crusades allowed European access to preserved copies of the Ancient Greek and Roman works along with the works of Islamic philosophers, especially Averroes.  The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure, which was needed for scientific communities.  As well as this Europeans began to venture further and further east (most notably, perhaps, Marcopolo) as a result of the max Mongolica.  This led to the increased influence of Indian and even Chinese science on the European tradition.  Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight.

Medieval scholars sought to understand the geometric and harmonic principles, which God created the Universe.  At the beginning of the 13^th century these were reasonably accurate Latin translation of the main works of the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the Universities and monasteries.

By then, the natural philosophy contain in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Rober Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns scouts.  Precursors of the modern scientific method can be already in Grosseteste’s emphasis on mathematics is a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Barcon, a particularly in his opus Majus.  According to Pierre the birth or modern science, because it force thinker to break from relying so much on Aristotle, and to think about the world in new ways. In 1348, the Black Death and other disaster to the massive philosophic and scientific development.  Yet, the vedisco very of ancient texts was improved after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the west.  Meanwhile, the introduction of printing to have great effect on European society.  The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas.  New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at tens point.  No least the introduction of Algebra.  These developments paved the way for scientific revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific change, halted at the start of the Black Death.

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

SIR ISAAC NEWTON

The renewal of learning in Europe that began with 12^th century scholasticism, came to an end about the time of Black Death, the initial period of subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as will in scientific activity.  The worsen Renaissance, one on other biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).  This modern science summed in period of great upheaval.  The protestant reformation and Catholic counter reformation, the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the fall of Constantinople; but also re-discovery of Aristotle during the scholastic period presaged large social and political changes.  Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Marin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine.  The works of Ptolemy (astronomy), Galen medicine), and Aristotle (physics) were found not always to match everyday observations.  For example, and arrow flying through the air after leaving a bow contradict Aristotle’s laws of motion which say that a moving object must be constantly under influence of an external force, as the natural state of earthly objects is to be at rest.  Work by Vesalius on human cadavers also found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

SEMI CONSERVATURE DNA REPLICATION

In 1847, Hugarian Physician ignac Fulop sommeliers dramatically reduced the occurrence of puerperal fever by the simple experiment of requiring physicians to wash their hand before attending to women in childbirth.  This discovery predicted germ theory of disease.

However, semmilwis findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeons Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister’s work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur.  Pasteur was able to link microorganism with disease, revolution-using medicine.  He also devised one of the most important methods in preventing medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine process of pasteurization, to help preventing the spread of disease through milk and other foods. Perhaps the most prominent and for reaching theory in all science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British natural list Charles Darwin in his on the Origin of species in 1859.  Dawin’s theory proposed that natural processes formed all differences animals over long periods of time, and that even humans were simply evolve organisms.  Implications of evaluation on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different part of society, and profoundly influence the popular understanding of “man’s place in the universe”.

In the early 20^th century, the study of hereditary became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Austrian work Gregor Mendel in 1866.  Mendel’s laws provided the beginning of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research.

By 1953, James Watson basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms.  In the late 20^th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (The Human Genome Project) has been routed as potentially having large medical benefits.

The summary of this essay is simple from antiquity; there has always existed a close affinity between science and philosophy. The nature or character of philosophy in a particular period determined the rapidity with which science developed and vice versa.  This symbiotic report between science and philosophy became most pronounced in the modern and postmodern periods.